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Fermentation-Advantages & Application

Posted by ubaid Saturday 30 May 2015 0 comments
Fermentation-Advantages&Application


Fermentation:




Fermentation,We know that in cellular respiration, glucose molecule goes through oxidation-reduction reactions to release energy in the form of ATP.Fermentation is the process in which there is incomplete oxidation-reduction of glucose.Fermentation has been in the knowledge of man since centuries,but it was believed that it is purely a chemical process .In 1857, pasteur convinced the scientific community that all fermentation are the results of microbial activity. He showed that fermentation is always  accompanied y the development of microorganisms. There are many kinds of fermentation and each kind is a characteristic of particular microbial group. 

Fermentations are classified in terms of the products formed.The initial steps of carbohydrate fermentation,  are identical to those of respiration. The process begins with glycolysis, in which  the  glucose, molecule is broken in to two molecules  of pyruvic acid. Different microorganisms proceed the further reactions  in different ways. It results in the formation of various products  from pyruvic acid.









The two basic typrs of carbohydrate fermentation are described next.

1.Alcoholic fermentation ( by yeast ) :









This fermentation is carried out by many types of yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae.This process is quite important and is used to produce bread, beer,wine and distilled spirits. In  this process carbon dioxide is removed from pyruvic acid.The product i.e. acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol. The carbon dioxide produced during this fermentation causes the rise of the bread.




2. Lactic acid fermentation ( by bacteria) :




Fermentation, In this process,pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid. It is carried out y many bacteria e.g. Streptococcus and many Lactobacillus species. It is quite important in dairy industry where it is used for souring milk and also for production of various typesof cheese.



Fermentation in Biotechnology:




Fermentation, In beginning,the meaning of fermentation process was the use of microorganisms for the production of foods (cheese, yogurt,fermented pickles and sausages, soy sauce), beverages (beers,wines) and spirits. However, in biotechnology the term ''fermentation'' means the production of any product by the mass culture of microorganisms.




Applications of fermentation:



Applications of fermentation, In fermentation, maximum growth of an organism is obtained for the production of desired products of commercial value. Traditionally, only food and beverages products were produced by using fermentation. Now many other products e.g. industrial chemicals are also being produced.


a-Fermented Foods:

Applications of fermentation, Fermentation often makes the foods  more nutritious, more bigestible and tastier. It also tends to preserve the food, lowering the need for refrigeration.The following groups are included in the fermented foods .

Cereal products:








Applications of fermentation, Bread is the commonest type of fermented cereal products. Wheat dough is fermented by S.cerevisiae along with some lactic acid bacteria. 


Dairy products:

Applications of fermentation, Cheese and yogurt are important fermentation products. Cheese is formed when a milk protein is coagulated. This happens when the acid produced by lactic acid bacteria reacts with milk protein
yogurt is made from milk by different lactic acid bacteria.


Fruit and vegetable products :




Applications of fermentation, Fermentation is usually used, along with salt and acid, to preserve pickle, fruits and vegetables.



Beverage products :









Applications of fermentation, Beer is produce from cereal grains which have been malted, dried and ground into fine powder. Fermentation of the powder is done by yeast. This process breaks the glucose present in powder into pyruvic acid and then into ethanol. Grapes can be directly fermented by  yeast to wine.


b-Industrial products:
Applications of fermentation, The following are the important industrial products produced through the process of fermentation.




Fermenter :



Applications of fermentation, Fermenter is a device that provides optimum environment microorganisms to grow into  biomass, so that they can interact with a substrate, forming the product.Fermentation is carried out in fermenters, in the following two ways.


Batch fermentation :






Applications of fermentation, In this process, the the tank of fermeter is filled with the raw materials to be fermented.The tempreture and pH for microbial fermentation is properly  adjusted,and nutritive  supplements are added. All the material is steam sterilized. The pure culture of microorganisms is added to fermentel from a separate vessel. Fermentation proceeds and after the proper time the contents of fermenter are taken out. Fermenter is cleaned and the process is repeated. Thus, fermentation is a discontinuous process divided into batches.



Continuous Fermentation :






Applications of fermentation, In this process, the substrate is added to fermentel continuously at a  fixed rate.This maintains the microorganisms in growth phase.Fermentation products are taken out continuously.




Advantages of using Fermenters :





Advantages of using Fermenters,For each biotechnological process,the environment provided to tthe organisms must be monitored and controlled. Such acontrolled environment is provided by fermenters. A fermenter optimizes the growth of the organisms by controlling many factors like nutrients, oxygen, growth inhibitors,pH and temperature.

Advantages of using Fermenters, A fermenter many hold several thousand liters of the growth medium. So, fermenters allow the production of materials in bulk quantities. Massive amounts of medicines, insulin, human growth hormone and other proteins are being produced in fermenter and this production proves much inexpensive. 








(Fermentation-Advantages & Application)

Biotechnology

Posted by ubaid Friday 29 May 2015 0 comments
Biotechnology

Introduction of Biotechnology:


Biotechnology is defined as the use of living organisms in processes for the manufacture of useful products or for services.Although the biotechnology is new,the discipline itself is very old. Fermentation and other such processes,which are based on the natural capabilities of organisms, are commonly considered as old biotechnology.


For your information:



  • Human began using microorganisms as a early as 4000 BC for making wine,vinegar, cheese,yogurt etc.Some of these processes have become a part of every home that we may even hesitate to refer them as biotechnology.


  • In Scotland, in 1997,an embryologist Ian Wilmut produced a sheep (Dolly) from the body cell of an adult sheep. 










 Genetic engineering:




Biotechnology, Genetic engineering i.e. the artificial synthesis, modification,removal,addition and repair of the genetic material (DNA) is considered as modern biotechnology.It is done to alter the characteristics of organisms. The work on genetic engineering is started in 1944 when it was proved that DNA carries the genetic information.Scientists isolated the enzymes of DNA synthesis  and then prepared DNA outside cells.In 1970s, they were able to cut and paste the DNA of organisms. In 1978, scientist prepared the human insulin by inserting the insulin gene in bacteria. Human growth hormone was also synthesized in bacteria.In 1990, the Human Genome Project was launched to map all the genes in human cell.The complete map of human genome was published in 2002.


Scope and importance of Biotechnology:


In recent years,biotechnology is growing as a separate science.It has attracted the attention of many intellectuals from diverse fields like agriculture,medicine, microbiology and organic chemistry.The scope for biotechnology is so wide that is difficult to recognize the limits. The following are some areas of the application biotechnology.


Biotechnology in field of medicine :








Biotechnology, In the field of medicine, biotechnologists synthesis insulin and interferon(antiviral proteins ) from bacteria and released for sale. A large number of vaccines and antibodies; human growth hormone and other medicines have also been produced.Various enzymes are being synthesized for medicinal as well as industrial use. Gene (therapy through genes) has become important in recent years. Biotechnology also proved much beneficial in forensic medicine.The study of DNA helps in the identification of criminals.


Biotechnology in field of food and agriculture: 




Biotechnology, Fermented foods (e.g. pickles, yogurt), malted foods(e.g. powdered milk: a mixture of barley, weight floor and whole milk), various vitamins and dairy products are produced by using microorganisms.Vine and beer are produced  in beverage industry.Biotechnology have also revolutionized research activities in the area of agriculture.Transgenic (organisms with modified genetic set-up) plants are being developed,in which desirable characteristics are presents e.g.more yields and resistance against diseases, insects and herbicides.Transgenic goats, chickens,cows give more food and milk etc.Many animals like mice,goats cows etc.have been made transgenic to get medicines through  their blood milk and urine.



Biotechnology and Environment:








Biotechnology is also being used for dealing with environmental issues, like pollution control, development of renewable sources for energy, restoration of degraded lands and biodiversity conservation. Bacterial enzymes are used to treat sewage water to purify. Microbes are being developed to be used as biopesticides ,biofertilizers,biosensors etc.Such transgenic microorganisms are also used for the recovery of metals cleaning of spilled oils and for many other purpose.


For your information:


Fears are also being expressed about the advances in biotechnology in terms of release of harmful organisms developed through recombinant DNA technology.











(Biotechnology)

Human Nervous System &Division of the nervous system

Posted by ubaid Wednesday 27 May 2015 0 comments
               
Human  Nervous System &Division of the                                    Nervous system 
               Human  Nervous System 



We have understood the basic model of  the working of the nervous system.The nervous system in man and in other higher animals is composed of two major components i.e. central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. Central nervous system comprises of coordinates i.e brain and spinal cord while peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that arise from central nervous system and spreads in different parts of body. All these components are made of neurons. Now we will first examine the structure and types of neurons and then e will go to  the divisions of nervous system.


Nerve cell or Neuron : 
Nerve cell  or neuron is the unit of  the nervous system.The human nervous system consists of billions of neuron plus supporting cells.Neurons are specialized cells  that are able to conduct nerve impulses from receptors to coordinators and from coordinators to effectors. In this way they communicate with each other and with other types of body cells.

The nucleus and most of the cytoplasm of neuron  is located in its cell body. Different processes extend out from cell body.These are called dendrites and axons. Dendrites conduct impulses toward cell body and axons conduct impulses away from cell body.Schwann cells are special neuroglial  cells located at regular intervals along axons.In some neurons,schwann cells secrete a fatty layer called myelin sheath, over axons.Between the areas of myelin on an axon there are non-myelinated
points,called the nodes of Ranvier.Myelin  sheath is an insulator so the membrane coated with this sheath does not conduct nerve impulse. In such a neuron impulses, impulses 'jump' over the areas of myelin going from node to node. Such impulses are called saltatory impulses.This increases the speed of nerve impulses.


On the basis of their functions,neurons of are three types;




Sensory neurons



1.Sensory neurons conduct  sensory information  from receptors to the CNS.Sensory neurons have one dendrite and one axon.






Interneurons




2.Interneurons from brain and spinal cord.They receive  information, interpret them and stimulate motor neurons. They have many dendrites and axons.







3.Motor neurons carry information interneurons  to muscles or glands.They have many dendrites but only one axon.



Nerve:
Human  Nervous System &Division of the nervous system. A  nerve means the union of several axons that are enveloped by a covering made of  lipid.Based on the property of axons, the nerves are classified into three types.


1.Sensory nerves contain the axons of sensory neurons only.


2.Motor nerves contain the axons of motor neutrons only.
3.Mixed nerves contain the axons of both i.e sensory and motor neurons.


Ganglion:



In certain parts  of body, the cell body of many neurons from a group enveloped by a membrane.this is called ganglion.


 Division of nervous system:


The detail of central and peripheral nervous system are given below.


Central Nervous System.



                      


The central nervous system consist of brain and spinal cord.


A. Brain.








Human  Nervous System &Division of the nervous system.In animals, all life activities are under the control of brain.  The structure of brain is suitable to perform this function. Brain is situated inside a bony cranium(part of skull).

Inside cranium, brain is covered by three layers called meninges. Meninges protect brain and also provide nutrients and Oxygen to brain Tissue through capillaries.

The brain contain of fluid-filled ventricles that are continuous with a central canal of spinal cord. Fluid with in ventricles and central canal is called cerebrospinal fluid of (CSF).

The Division of Brain


There are three major regions in the brain of human and other vertebrates. Theseare forebrain, Midbrain, and hindbrain,

Important parts of each of these region are described below.

Fore brain.


Fore brain is the largest area of brain. It is most highly developed in humans. Following are the important part of this region.


1. Thalamus:
Thalamus lies just below cerebrum. It serves as relay center between various part of brain and spinal cord. It also received and modifies sensory impulses(except from nose) before they travel to cerebrum. Thalamus is also involved is pain perception and consciousness(sleep and awakening)


2. Hypothalamus:
Hypothalamus lies above midbrain and just below thalamus. In humans, It is roughly the size of an almond. One of the most important functions of hypothalamus ti link with nervous system and endocrine. It control the secretion of pituitary gland.It also control feelings such as rage, pain, pleasure, and sorrow.

3. Cerebrum:
Cerebrum is the largest part of forebrain. It controls skeletal muscles. thinking intelligence and emotions. It is divided into two cerebral hemispheres. The anterior parts of cerebral hemispheres are called olfactory bulbs which receive impulses from olfactory nerves and create the sensation of smell.
The upper layer of cerebral hemispheres i.e cerebral cortex consists of grey matter. The grey matter of nervous system consists of cell bodies an non-myelinated axons. Beneath this layers is present the white matter. The white matter of nervous system consist of myelinated axons. Cerebral cortex as a large surface area and is folded in ordered to fit in skull. It is divided four lobes
Midbrain:

Human  Nervous System &Division of the nervous system. Midbrain lies between hindbrain  and forebrain and connects the two.It receives sensory information   and sends it to the appropriate part of forebrain.Midbrain also controls sime auditory reflexes and posture.

Hinbrain:

 Human  Nervous System &Division of the nervous system.
 Hindbrain consists of three major parts.


(i)Medulla oblongata :


Medulla oblongata lies on the top of spinal cord. It controls breathing and heart rate and blood pressure.It also controls many reflexes such as vomiting,coughing, sneezing, etc.Information that passes between spinal cord and the rest of brain pass through medulla.

(ii)Cerebellum:

 Cerebellum is behind medulla.It coordinates muscle movements.

(iii)Pons:

 Pons is present of top  medulla.It assists medulla in controlling breathing.It also serves as a connection between cerebellum and spinal cord.


B.Spinal Cord:
Human  Nervous System &Division of the nervous system.The spinal cord is in fact a tubular bundle of  nerves.It starts from brain stems and extends to lower back. Like brain, spinal cord is also covered by meninges. The vertebral column surrounds  and protects spinal cord.

The outer region of spinal cord is made of white matter (containing myelinated axons). The central region is butterfly shaped that surrounds the central  canal. It is made  grey matter(containing neuron cell bodies).

31 pairs of spinal nerves arise along spinal cord.These are mixed nerves because each contains axons of both sensory and motor neurons.At the point where a spinal nerve arises from spinal cord,there are two roots of spinal nerve.Both roots unite and form one mixed spinal nerve.


  • The dorsal root contains sensory axons and a ganglion where cell bodies  are located.
  • The ventral root contains axons of motor neurons.
Spinal cord performs two main functions:

1.It serves as link between body parts and brain spinal cord transmits nerve impulses from body parts to brain and from brain to body parts.

2.Spinal cord also acts as a coordinator responsible for some simple reflexes.



Peripheral Nervous System:

Human  Nervous System &Division of the nervous system.The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of nerves and ganglia.Ganglia are the clusters of neuron cell bodies outside  CNS. Nerves arise and lead to brain and spinal cord.So they are named as cranial and spinal nerves. Humans have 10 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.Some cranial nerves are sensory, some are motor and some are mixed. On the other hand, all spinal nerves are mixed nerves.

The cranial and spinal nerves  make two path ways  i.e.sensory pathways(conducting impulses from receptors to CNS) and motor  pathway(conducting impulses from CNS to effectors). Motor pathway makes two systems.

Somatic nervous system:  

It is responsible for the conscious and voluntary actions. It includes all of the motor neurons that conduct impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles.

Automatic nervous system:
Human  Nervous System &Division of the nervous system.It is responsible for the activities,which are not under conscious control. It consists of motor neurons that send impulses to cardiac muscles smooth  muscle and glands. Automatic nervous system comprises  of sympathetic system and parasympathetic system.Sympathetic nervous system prepares body to deal with emergency situations. This is often called the ''fight or flight''response.During an emergency situations, this system take necessary actions.For example; it detail pupils,accelerates heartbeat, increases breathing rates and inhibits digestion.When stress end parasympathetic nervous system takes action and normalizes all the functions.It causes pupils to contract, promotes digestions,and slows the rate of heartbeat and breathing rate.



Reflex action:



When central nervous system sends impulses  to muscles and glands, two type of action  (responses) result.


1.The higher centres of brain  control the conscious action or voluntary actions.

2.When impulses are not passed to the higher centres of brain, it results in responses which are not under conscious control.Such responses are called involuntary actions.Sometime,the involuntary response produced by the CNS is very quick.Such a response is called reflex action.The pathway followed by the nerve impulses for producing a reflex action is called reflex arc.


The most  common examples of reflex action is the withdrawal of hand after touching a hot object. In this reflex action,spinal cord acts as coordinator.Heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in skin.A nerve impulse is generated which is carried by sensory neurons to the inter neurons of spinal cord. From inter neurons, the impulse is passed to motor neurons, which carry it to the muscles of arm.As a result, the muscle contract to the with draw hand.During it, inter neurons transmit nerve impulses up to brain so that the person becomes aware of pain and what happened.   







   (Human  Nervous System &Division of the nervous system ) 

The Reproduction in Rabbit & male and female reproduction system

Posted by ubaid Tuesday 26 May 2015 0 comments
The Reproduction in Rabbit


The reproduction in Rabbit, Rabbits are small mammals found in several parts of the world.They are used in research as experimental animals.



For your information :





Rabbit reingest  their own pallet- like faeces to digest their food further ans extract sufficient nutrients.

The reproductive system in Rabbit.


The reproduction in Rabbit Male reproductive system:





The reproduction in Rabbit  male reproductive system of rabbit consists of a pair of testes that produce sperms, the associated ducts that transport  sperm to external genitalia and glands that add secretions to sperms.

Testes is located in a bag of skin called the scrotum that hangs below the body.Each testis consists of a mass of coiled tubes called the seminiferous tubules.In these tubules the sperms are formed.

The reproduction in Rabbit sperms are mature,they accumulate in the  collecting ducts of testes and then passed  to epididimys. From epididimys sperms move to a sperm called vas deferens.Both sperms ducts join urethra just below urinary bladder.The urethra transport both sperm and urine.

Semen is material containing sperms in a  fluid.It consists of 10% sperms and 90% fluid. As the sperms pass down the ducts from testes to urethra the associated glands add various secretions. Seminal vesicles produce secretions that  provide nutrients for sperms. Prostate gland produces a secretion that neutralizes the acidity of the fluid. Cowper's glands produces secretions that lubricate the ducts.



The reproduction in Rabbit, Female reproductive system:




The Reproduction in Rabbit female Reproductive system of Rabbit consists of ovaries  and associated ducts. Ovaries are small organs situated in abdominal cavity just  ventral to kidneys.Like most animals, female rabbits have a pair of ovaries. the outer region of ovary produces egg cells . a cluster  of specialized cells called follicle surround and nourishes  each egg cell.From ovaries egg cells are released in a fallopian tubes.

The production in rabbies, opening of  fallopian  tubes lies close to ovary.The uterus of rabbit is divided into two separate parts or horns.The uterus horns join and open into vagina or birth canal.Cervix  is the portion of uterus , which separates it  form birth canal, where sperms of mail are deposited.







                  (The Reproduction in Rabbit)

The Important Endocrine Glands

Posted by ubaid 0 comments
The Important Endocrine Glands

The Important Endocrine Glands
 Endocrine System, Important endocrine glands, pituitary gland , anterior lobe, posterior lobe, thyroid gland , parathyroid gland , andrenal glands. pancreas, gonads, 

Endocrine system






The activities such as growth, reproduction, maintenance of glucose  concentration in blood,reabsorption of water in kidneys etc.need to be regulated.Endocrine system system perform this  job.This system uses chemicals  to communicated with its efffectors. These chemicals are known as hormones. A hormone is a specific messenger molecules synthesized and secreted by an endocrine gland.These glands are ductless and release their secretions directly into bloodstream.Blood caries the hormones  to target organs or tissues upon which they act.




The Important Endocrine Glands


1.Pituitary Gland:





It is a pea shaped gland attached to the hypothalamus of brain.Many  hormones(trophic hormones)   of pituitary gland influence the secretions of other endocrine glands.However some hormones of this glands  act directly on various tissues of body.There are two lobes of pituitary glands  it mean anterior lobe or posterior lobe . 

a. Anterior  Lobe :





It produces many hormones.One of its important hormones is somatotrophin.It promotes the growth of body. If the production of this hormone is diminished during growing age the rate of growth decreases. This condition is called dwarfish.If this hormone is excessively produce during growing condition is call gigantism. If somatotrophin is excessively produce after growing age internal organs and body extremities along grow large. This condition is known as acromegaly. Such person will have large hands, feet and jawbones.




Thyroid-stimulating hormone:
It stimulate thyroid gland to secret its hormones. They remaing hormone of anterior lobe influence reproductive organs and also control adrenal glands.
b.Posterior Lobe:





They posterior lobe of pituitary gland stores and secretes two hormones i.e Oxytocin and Vasopressin. These hormone are produce hypothalamus. 

Vasopressin:






Increases the rate of reabsorption of water from nephrons. When we have low amount of water in body fluids, pituitary gland secret vasopressin and so more reabsorption of water occurs from nephrons into blood.

In this way, body retains water and less amount urine is produced. On the other hand, when body fluids have more than normal water, there is a decline in the secretion of this hormone. If pituitary gland does not secret this hormone in the required amount, less water is reabsorbed from nephrons and there excessive loss of water through urine. This condition is know as diabetes insipidus.

The hormone Oxytocin stimulate the contraction of uterus walls in the mothers for child birth. Moreover, this hormone is necessary for the ejection of milk from breast.



2. Thyroid gland:






Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland in human body. It is prsent in neck region, below larynx, and the produces a hormone thyroxin. Iodine is required for the production of this hormone. If a person lacks iodine in diet,  thyroid gland can not make its hormone. In this condition, thyroid gland en larges.
Thyroid gland  disorder is called goitre.

Thyroxin increases break down of food and release of energy in body. It is also responsible for the growth of body.

Hypothyroidism is cause by the under-production of thyroxin. It is characterized by low energy production in body and slowing down of heart beat. Hyperthyroidism is cause by over-production of thyroxin. Its symptoms are increase in energy production, increase heart beat, frequent sweating and shivering of hands.

The thyriod gland produces an other hormone called calcitonin. It deceases the level of calcium ions in blood and promotes the absorption of calcium from blood into the bones.


3.Parathyroid Glands:






Thea are four glands situated in the posterior side of thyroid gland.They produce a hormone known as parathormone. It increases the level of calcium ions in the blood. 
When there is increased production of parathormone more than normal calcium salts are absorbed from the bones and added to blood.Consequently the bones become brittle.If there is dificiency in the production of parathormone, blood calcium level falls.It leads to tetany, which affect the functioning of muscles.


4.Adrenal glands:




Two adrenal glands are situated above kidneys.Each adrenal glands consists of two parts. The outer part is cortex and the inner part is medulla.Adrenal medulla secretes a hormone called epinephrine or adrenaline in response to stress.It prepares our body to overcome emergency situations .Therefore adrenaline is also termed as 'emergency hormone'. The adrenal cortex secrets many hormones called  corticosteriods  which maintain the balance of salts and water in blood.



5.Pancreas:





This organ has two function. The major part of pancreas is a ducted gland.This portion secrets digestive enzymes.through  a duct into the small intestine.Some portion of pancreas serve as ductless gland .This portion contains groups of endocrine cells referred as islets of Langerhans.These islets secrete  two hormones i.e. insulin and glucagon.Glucagon influences the liver to release glucose in blood and so the blood glucose concentration rises. Insulin influences the liver excess to  glucose from blood and so the blood glucose concentration falls.
If a person's pancreas does not make normal quantity of  insulin, the blood glucose concentration rises  and we say that the person has  diabetes mellitus.Persons with diabetes have loss of body weight,weakening of muscles and tiredness.the disease can be controlled by insulin administration. Formerly insulin extracted from animals as used for this purpose.But now human insulin produced from bacteria  through genetic engineering is available.



6.Gonads:




Testis and ovaries are male and female reproductive organs i.e gonads.In addition to producing gametes , gonads also secrets  hormones, called sex hormones.Testes secrete hormone e.g. testosterone,which is responsible for the male secondary sex characters such as growth of hair on face and coarseness of voice etc.
Ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone,which are responsible for the development of female secondary characters such as the development of breast etc.










(The Important Endocrine Glands)

The Disorders of kidney

Posted by ubaid Monday 25 May 2015 0 comments
The Disorders of kidney

Kidney Define




The disorder of kidney, kidney are dark-red,bean shaped organs.They are placed against the back wall of abdominal cavity just below diaphragm,one on either side of  vertebral column.They are protected by  the two last ribs.The left kidney is the little higher than  the right.The concave side of kidney  faces  vertebral column.There is a depression, called  hilus.
Rental cortex is the outer part of kidney  and it is dark red in colour. Renal medullas the inner part of kidney and it is pale red in colour .Renal medulla is the consist of several cone shaped areas called renal pyramids.Renal pyramids project into a funnel-shaped cavity called renal pelvi,which is the base of ureter.



Size of kidney:

Each kidney is 10 cm long,5 cm wide and 4 cm thick.
Its weighs about 27 grams


Disorders of kidney:


There are many different kinds of kidney.


Kidney stones:











When urine becomes concentrated,crystals of many salts e.g. calcium oxalate, calcium and ammonium phosphate,uric acid etc are formed in it. Such large crystals cannot  pass in urine and  form hard deposits kidney stones. Most stone start in kidney. Some may travel to  ureter  or urinary  bladder. 

Inthis method non- electrical shoke 

Causes:

The disorder in kidney, The major causes of kidney stones are age diet (containing more green vegetables, salts vitamins C and D ), recurring urinary tract infections,less intake of water and alcohol consumption.



Symptoms:









The disorder of kidney, The  symptoms of kidney stones include severe pain in kidney or lower abdomen,vomiting, frequent urination and foul-smelling urine with blood and pus.


Treatment:











The disorder of kidney, About 90% of all kidney stones can pass  through the urinary system by drinking  plenty water. In surgical treatment, the affected area is opened and stone(s) are removed. Lithotripsy  is another method for the removal of kidney stones.In this method non-electrical shock waves from outside are bombarded on the stones in the urinary system. Waves  hit the dense stones  and break them. Stones become sand-like and are pass through urine.




                                The Disorders of kidney




For your information:



Abu Nasr al-Farabi (872-951) was a prominent scientists who wrote many books that contained information about kidney diseases.The genius Abu al-Qasim Al Zahrawi ( known as Albucasis): 936-1013. is considered to be Islam's greatest  surgeon who invented many surgical procedures includin the surgical removal of contained over 200 surgical medical instruments he personally designed.




Kidney(Renal)failure



The disorder in kidney, kidney failure mean a complete or partial failure of kidneys to function.Diabetes mellitus  and hypertension are the leading causes of kidney failure.


The Disorders of kidney


Symptoms:



The main symptoms of kidney failure is  the high level of urea and other wastes in blood, which can result in vomiting, nausea,weight  loss frequent urination and blood in urine.Excess  fluids in body may also cause swellings of legs feet and face and shortness of breath.

Treatment:
The kidney failure is treated with dialysis and kidney transplant.

 a.Dialysis:

Dialysis mean the cleaning of blood by artificial ways. There are two method of dialysis.

1. Peritoneal Dialysis.





The kidney disorder dialysis fluid, In this type of dialysis fluid is pumped for a time into the peritoneal cavity which is space around gut. This cavity is lined by peritoneum. Peritoneum contains blood vessels. When  we place dialysis fluid in peritoneal cavity, waste material from peritoneal blood vessels diffuse into the dialysis fluid, Which is then drained out. This type can be perform at home, but must be done every day.



2. Haemodialysis. 

In Haemodialysis patients blood is pumped through an apparatus called dialyzer. The dialyzer contain long tubes, the walls of which act as semi-permeable membranes. Blood flows through the tubes while the dialysis fluid flows around the tubes. Extra water and wastes move from blood into the dialysis fluid. The cleansed blood is then returned back to body. The Haemodialysis treatment are typically given him dialysis centres three time per week. 





(The Disorders of kidney)


b.Kidney transplant:

The treatment of kidney transplant, We know that dialysis needs  to be repeated after every few days and is unpleasant for patients and attendants.Another treatment for the end-stage kidney failure is kidney transplantation.It is the replacement of patient' damaged kidney with a donor healthy kidney. Kidney may be denoted by a deceased donor or living  donor.The donor may or may not be a relative of the patient.Before transplant the tissue proteins of donor and patient are matched.The donor kidney is transplanted in patient's body and is connected to the patient's blood and urinary system.The average life time for a donated kidney is ten to fifteen years.When a transplant fails,the patient may be given a second kidney transplant. In this situation, the patient is treated through dialysis for some intermediary time.Problems after a transplant rejection,infections,imbalances in body salts which can lead to bone problems and ulcers.







(The Disorders of kidney)

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